Democratic Elections and Political Process (DEPP) LWA

Democratic Elections and Political Process (DEPP) LWA is sponsored by U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). This program from USAID seeks sustainable solutions to electoral and political process constraints, leading to more responsive and effective governance.

Activities can include technical assistance to Electoral Management Bodies (EMBs) to assess technological innovations for election integrity, managing cybersecurity needs, and supporting civil society engagement in democratic processes. The program builds on previous work in addressing elections and political processes in countries emerging from autocracy.

Issue Date: June 11, 2021 Deadline for Questions: June 25, 2021 (5:00 PM EST) Closing Date: July 12, 2021 Closing Time: 5:00 PM (EST) Subject: Notice of Funding Opportunity (NOFO) Number: 7200AA21 RFA00022 Program Title: Democratic Elections and Political Process (DEPP) LWA Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance (CFDA) Number: 98.

001 Ladies/Gentlemen: The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is seeking applications from all eligible organizations for a program to seek sustainable solutions to electoral and political processes constraints leading to more responsive and effective governance that is able to meet the needs of citizens. Please refer to the Program Description (Attachment A) for a complete statement of goals and expected results.

The authority for this RFA is found in the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended. USAID intends to award a single Leader with Associate Award. A Leader with Associate Award (LWA) is a grant or cooperative agreement that covers a specified worldwide activity.

USAID intends to make an award to one of the applicant(s) who best meets the objectives of this funding opportunity based on the merit review criteria described in this NOFO subject to a risk assessment. Eligible parties interested in submitting an application are encouraged to read this NOFO thoroughly to understand the type of program sought, application submission requirements and selection process.

To be eligible for award, the applicant must provide all information as required in this NOFO and meet eligibility standards in Section C of this NOFO. This funding opportunity is posted on www. grants.

gov, and may be amended. It is the responsibility of the applicant to regularly check the website to ensure they have the latest information pertaining to this notice of funding opportunity and to ensure that the NOFO has been received from the internet in its entirety. USAID bears no responsibility for data errors resulting from transmission or conversion process.

If you have difficulty registering on www. grants. gov or accessing the NOFO, please contact the Grants.

gov Helpdesk at 1-800-518-4726 or via email at support@grants. gov for technical assistance. 1USAID may not award to an applicant unless the applicant has complied with all applicable unique entity identifier and System for Award Management (SAM) requirements detailed in Section D.

6(g). The registration process may take many weeks to complete. Therefore, applicants are encouraged to begin registration early in the process.

Please send any questions to the point(s) of contact identified in Section D. The deadline for questions is shown above. Responses to questions received prior to the deadline will be furnished to all potential applicants through an amendment to this notice posted to www.

grants. gov. Issuance of this NOFO does not constitute an award commitment on the part of the Government nor does it commit the Government to pay for any costs incurred in preparation or submission of comments/suggestions or an application. Applications are submitted at the risk of the applicant.

All preparation and submission costs are at the applicant’s expense. Thank you for your interest in USAID programs. Sincerely, G.

Serapis Irby Agreement Officer 2TABLE OF CONTENTS Section A – Program Description 4Section B – Federal Award Information 35 Section C – Eligibility Information 37 Section D – Application and Submission Information 38 Section E – Application Review Information 57 Section F – Federal Award Administration Information 59 Section G – Federal Awarding Agency Contacts 65 Section H – Other Information 66 Annex 1 - Summary Budget Template 67 Annex 2 - Standard Provisions 68 3SECTION A: PROGRAM DESCRIPTION This funding opportunity is authorized under the Foreign Assistance Act (FAA) of 1961, as amended.

The resulting award will be subject to 2 CFR 200 – Uniform Administrative Requirements, Cost Principles, and Audit Requirements for Federal Awards, and USAID’s supplement, 2 CFR 700, as well as the additional requirements found in Section F.

USAID’s overarching goal in the Democracy, Human Rights, and Governance (DRG) sector is to support the establishment and consolidation of inclusive and accountable democracies to advance freedom, dignity and development.

The role of the Democracy, Human Rights, and Governance Center (DRG Center) is to provide USAID and other development practitioners with technical support, intellectual leadership, and implementing mechanisms to strengthen democratic development around the world.

Within the DRG Center, the Democratic Elections and Political Processes (DEPP) technical team supports the Agency’s objective to encourage more credible and competitive political processes and transitions. DEPP implements programs, supports USAID Missions, and conducts research all in support of Agency programs to support sustainable development and self-reliance.

This Democratic Elections and Political Processes (DEPP) LWA will primarily support USAID’s goals and objectives under the “Governing Justly and Democratically” area of the Foreign Assistance Framework, and, more specifically, the “Political Competition and Consensus Building” program element in the framework. This activity builds on 20 years of LWAs in the context of addressing elections and political processes.

USAID democracy assistance focused on the building blocks of democratic processes – civil society, institutions of democratic governance, rule of law, and competitive political processes. Countries emerging from years of autocracy had incipient civil society, a citizenry that long had its political participation suppressed, and state institutions geared toward centralized and top-down control.

Democracy assistance supported the dramatic social, institutional and political change underway. Electoral assistance targeted the many institutions, capabilities, and processes that are needed for a free and fair election. Among the areas of assistance include election administration and the operational and strategic capability of electoral management bodies (EMBs).

Legal frameworks needed to be developed and aligned with international norms and standards. Other areas of focus included civic and voter education to ensure an informed and active citizenry, support for election monitoring, and political party assistance.

4An electoral cycle approach underpins USAID’s approach to electoral processes and recognizes the many processes that occur from the lengthy pre-electoral phase, throughout the election, and into the post-electoral period. Electoral assistance focuses not only on the institutions and processes needed to ensure voting and counting of results but also the values and incentives that underpin competition among candidates and parties.

Electoral assistance seeks to develop fair ‘rules of the game’ and legal frameworks to enable fair competition and an informed and active citizenry able to engage constructively in political processes. More recently, the world has witnessed what is being called a “democratic recession,” with some metrics pointing to a 14th year of consecutive declines in political freedom globally.

What was once believed to be a steady advance toward more democratic political systems has been called into question with the rise of resurgent authoritarianism. The results and lessons learned from previous activities and evaluations, as well as innovative, promising, and novel global interventions, informed the design of this program.

Consistent with USAID’s Evaluation Policy, the DRG Center will conduct external evaluations of this activity’s performance in relation to its immediate objectives and its contribution to Center-level strategy objectives.

The design team incorporated findings and recommendations from the 2019 rapid learning assessment of the Global Elections and Political Transitions LWA, responses to a Request for Information (RFI), and a pre-solicitation conference as well as ongoing feedback and dialogue with DRG Center colleagues managing global DRG awards and related research and learning activities.

This recent feedback on DRG LWAs, as well as via the DDI Client Services development process, further supports the choice of an LWA because of the (1) flexibility of instrument, (2) ease and speed of use, and (3) adaptability to emphasize local focus when appropriate and desired. In accordance with Automated Directives System (ADS) 303. 3.

6. 4 (b), the Agency would award the LWA through unrestricted competition and “consistent with the Federal Grant and Cooperative Agreement Act of 1977, USAID,” encourages unrestricted competition in the award of discretionary grants and cooperative agreements. II.

PROGRAM STRUCTURE a) General Information This NOFO will be used to award a Leader with Associates (LWA) for worldwide activities, and for subsequent Associate Awards by USAID Missions or other USAID operating units. No further competition or waiver of competition is required for any Associate Agreements awarded within the terms of the Leader Award.

Each Associate 5Award is a separate Assistance Agreement funded by a USAID Mission or other USAID operating unit and awarded to the Leader Award recipient to support a distinct local or regional activity that fits within the scope of the broad worldwide program description in the Leader Agreement. An Associate Award may be a grant or a cooperative agreement, independent of whether the Leader Award is a grant or cooperative agreement.

If an Associate Award is a cooperative agreement, it must spell out the terms of any substantial involvement. Under individual Associate Awards, the need for cost-sharing will be individually determined by each Mission or Bureau for their respective programs. Associate Awards will not contain separate standard provisions.

Instead, they will be subject to the standard provisions of the Leader Award. Associate Awards may be awarded for up to an initial five-year period. Associate Awards may be issued until the Leader Award expires.

Associate Awards may be extended for a cumulative term of up to ten years, but in no event may Associate Awards extend for more than five years past the expiration of the Leader Award. In no case may an Associate Award extend more than five years into the future at any given time.

The Leader Award made subsequent to this RFA will include the following ceiling as more fully described in the sections below: Leader Award Ceiling: $35,000,000 Associate Award Ceiling: $800,000,000 This figure is a ceiling only. There is no guarantee regarding the magnitude of Associate Awards in dollars or number of awards. The actual total award amounts of all Associate Awards cannot exceed this ceiling.

The Leader Award consists of three elements in the following order of priority: I. Rapid and Flexible Response Programs: This robust program component will respond to unanticipated needs, emerging opportunities and critical gaps in programming. Rapid response activities can enable a rapid startup of activities in a time sensitive and rapidly evolving situation.

In addition, this component enables activities under the leader to address specific, targeted needs that can be addressed through a short-term intervention and would generally not be of sufficient scale and scope to necessitate an Associate Award. Activities under rapid and flexible response that are 6Mission buy-ins will typically last less than one year and have a budget less than $1,000,000. II.

Targeted Interventions or Pilot Programs: This component will encourage awardees to test innovations, creative solutions and/or target distinct issues or solve specific problems, including in countries not undergoing transitions. This component of the leader will allow awardees to take measured risks in testing new solutions and implementing innovative activities to address elections and political processes’ challenges.

This component will also enable partner organizations to implement narrow scope, targeted interventions in a country, including but not limited to conducting a feasibility study, implementing a stakeholder dialogue process, deploying a short-term international observation, or conducting a short-term training or technical assistance program. These programs will typically last less than one year. III.

Technical Leadership: Through the leader, awardees will conduct innovative research resulting in the development of widely disseminated, practical, and user-friendly guides, tools, and training publications in the field of elections and political transitions. This may include applied research, knowledge management activities, and evaluation of programs and experiences across regions to identify best practices and lessons learned.

Technical leadership may also include convening events to share and disseminate lessons learned throughout the development community and among relevant stakeholders. All activities under the Leader Award will achieve results in support of the nine objectives outlined above in Section V “Program Objectives.

” When a requirement for activities is identified under any of the three elements of the Leader Award described above the USAID Agreement Officer’s Representative (AOR) will issue technical direction to the Recipient to submit an application for this new activity under the Leader Award or through co-creation the awardee will submit a concept for discussion with USAID.

The AOR will specify parameters for the anticipated budget and period of performance. If circumstances warrant, the Recipient may also notify the AOR about needs and opportunities it has identified; upon discussion between the AOR and the Recipient on the scope and extent of these activities, the USAID AOR may issue technical direction to request implementation of the discussed activities.

7For each activity conducted under the Leader Award, the Recipient will provide a separate application conforming to the anticipated budget and period of performance.

The Recipient’s application, following the AOR’s technical direction, for each activity under the Leader Award will identify the purpose of the activity, a detailed description or methodology for the activity proposed (or for sub-awards, the solicitation or the actual program application of an apparently successful sub-grant applicant), a detailed budget, the Recipient’s key personnel responsible for the overall performance of the activity and quality of the final outcome(s), a performance monitoring plan, a plan for branding and marking, a list of deliverables (including their form, timeline for submission, and a plan for dissemination), and a sustainability plan.

The AOR’s acceptance of the Recipient’s application for individual activities under the Leader Award will not constitute a change in the program description or the budget of the Leader Award. Activities and activity budgets approved by the AOR constitute revisions to the Recipient’s annual work plan and are subject to the substantial involvement of USAID in the Leader Award.

All publications, reports generated under Leader Award activities, and other deliverables must be reviewed by the AOR prior to finalization. The AOR will not accept as final any report or other deliverable which does not meet acceptable quality standards.

An Associate Award is a separate assistance agreement funded by a USAID Mission, Bureau, office, or other U.S. Government agency and awarded to the Leader Award Recipient to support a distinct local or regional activity that fits within the scope of the worldwide Program Description in the Leader Award. Agreement Officers may, within the limits of their authority, issue Associate Awards.

Associate Awards may be awarded by USAID Missions and USAID/Washington offices in order to implement bilateral or regional programs. Associate Awards will usually focus on development assistance in the technical field of democracy, elections and political processes but could also be awarded for technical leadership activities. Associate Awards must support one or more of the Program Objectives listed in this Program Description.

An Associate Award may be a grant or cooperative agreement, independent of whether the Leader Award is a grant or cooperative agreement. 8III. PLANNING, MONITORING AND REPORTING REQUIREMENTS The Recipient will adhere to all reporting requirements listed below.

The Recipient shall submit one electronic copy of each report to the AOR of the Leader Award. All reports must be in English, organized logically, and adhere to the federal government’s Plain Language requirements. In all cases, the Recipient shall submit a single report consolidating all program activities, progress towards results, and analysis of impact.

The Annual Work Plan and Quarterly Progress Reports should be organized by the three program elements for the Leader Award (i.e., Rapid and Flexible Response, Pilot Programs and Technical Leadership). The Monitoring and Evaluation Plan should be organized by the nine Program Objectives described in this Program Description.

The Leader and each Associate Award is anticipated to generate a large number of performance, financial, and other reports. The Recipient is encouraged to propose an alternative on-line file management system to streamline the electronic submission of reports and ensure reliable accessibility to the Agreement Officers and AORs. Existing “off-the-shelf” information technology products and/or services would be preferred.

Such a system would not alter the responsibility of the Recipient to submit documentation to the Development Experience Clearinghouse as required (see ADS 540). Within 60 days of the signing of the award for the first year and 30 days before the beginning of each subsequent Agreement year, the Recipient will submit an annual work plan for approval by USAID’s AOR.

Its approval by the AOR will serve as a reference point for submitting subsequent reports. For convenience, the AOR may establish an alternative schedule for annual and periodic reporting (e.g., one aligned with the fiscal or calendar year).

The forward-looking annual work plan will outline all ongoing activities under the Leader Award that have been approved previously as a result of technical direction, and benchmarks/results to be achieved over the course of the year. The annual work plan will describe activities to be conducted at a greater level of detail than the Recipient’s application. All work plan activities must be within the scope and objectives of the award.

Work plans cannot change the scope and objectives or any other terms and conditions of the award; such changes may only be approved by the Agreement Officer. The annual work plan shall represent the Recipient’s holistic approach in conducting activities in the upcoming year. The annual work plan shall be organized into sections: 9a.

Introduction/Overview/Summary – A brief introduction will include an overall summary of the status of the program to date including significant programmatic accomplishments and their attributable outcomes, problems with program implementation, changes in the political context, and assumptions underlying the program. b.

Plan of Activities – Each annual work plan will focus on the status of implementation of approved activities under the Leader Award. The plan for activities should be organized according to each of the three program elements of the Leader Award – Rapid Response, Targeted Interventions and Pilot Programs and Technical Leadership (by sub-element) – and then chronologically by the date of approval for each activity.

(Where an approved activity utilizes more than one program element, it should be placed in the report based on the dominant component.) Overall approved budget and the amounts obligated by USAID and amount spent by the recipient; names of the approved key personnel; and the period of performance should be included with the narrative of each activity.

A short summary of results to date should precede the planned schedule of activities and benchmarks for each quarter of the upcoming year. c. Administrative Management Plan – The administrative management plan should reflect the approved management structure and report any anticipated changes for the upcoming year.

This section should also provide updates on implementation of the approved Branding Strategy and Marking Plan and any issues related to implementation and management of Associate Awards. d. Performance Management Plan – The performance management plan should report on the continued appropriateness of the approved performance management plan.

(Requests for changes to the performance management plan should precede the submission of the annual work plan.) The periodic performance reports, not the annual work plan, are the appropriate venue for the Recipient to report on outputs and outcomes. e.

Financial Information – Detailed financial information on approved, obligated, and disbursed funding for each activity and each Associate Award should be included. f.

Associate Award Information – A list of Associate Awards including the country or region of activity; start and end dates for the period of performance (and, if applicable, modified end date); approved (and, if applicable, modified ceiling), obligated, and disbursed funding; names of key personnel; name of the Associate Award’s AO and AOR; Program Objections of the Leader Award supported; and number and date of most recent modification should be included.

10 Within 30 calendar days of submission of the annual work plan, the AOR will approve the work plan or provide the Recipient with written comments. The Recipient will have 15 calendar days to revise the annual work plan. If necessary, the AOR will have an additional 15 calendar days to provide a second round of comments.

If no comments are received within the specified period, the work plan is deemed approved. The AOR may approve parts of the work plan while awaiting revision of the full work plan. The Recipient may request the AOR approve modifications to the approved annual work plan, as necessary.

ii. Performance Management Plan The Recipient will develop a cost-effective, results-oriented performance monitoring plan that will provide USAID with information to improve performance and effectiveness as well as to inform planning and management decisions. The Recipient’s performance monitoring approach must be consistent with USAID’s Evaluation Policy, reflect industry best practices, and represent part of a larger learning agenda.

The performance management plan will be approved by the AOR of the Leader Award. The Recipient will be responsible for monitoring the program benchmarks and final activity results. As part of each quarterly progress report, data will be provided for each benchmark and indicator proposed including baseline data and any data collected to date.

The performance management plan should be organized by nine Program Objectives of the Leader Award described in this Program Description. Data should be collected and reported at the level of both 1) all activities approved under the Leader Award and 2) all Associate Awards aggregated globally. (Associate Awards will additionally have their own individual performance management plans specific to each award.)

The Recipient will be responsible for establishing and maintaining a performance management plan with appropriate indicators linked to each intermediate result, a process to collect data on program performance in a timely and cost-effective manner, and a system for analyzing and using this data to consistently improve program performance. Specific life-of-program targets will be agreed upon with USAID.

Milestones and benchmarks toward achieving these results will be set out. Performance monitoring will measure progress in program implementation against these benchmarks. Measurement will focus on both output and outcome data.

Analysis will demonstrate broader impact and results of program activities. 11 The performance plan will also highlight how data collected will show the impact and effectiveness of program approaches and methodologies employed and contribute toward enhancing understanding of best practices in the sector.

The Recipient will be strongly encouraged to collect data on those indicators that are relevant for elections and political processes activities on an annual basis.

USAID will work with the Recipient of the award to further identify indicators based on programmatic areas in order to more closely analyze trends in the field of election and political processes, such as constitutional reforms, international and domestic monitoring, etc. The Recipient should consider to what extent a partner organization could provide independent monitoring and evaluation services within the scope of its application.

USAID requires the Recipient to cooperate with any external monitoring and evaluation activities authorized by USAID for both Leader Award activities and Associate Awards. This includes cooperation with the design of impact evaluations which may affect elements of the Recipient’s annual work plan and/or Associate Awards.

It also refers to evaluation activities sponsored by other USG and non-USG donors or a group of donors when endorsed by USAID. The Recipient will submit its proposed performance management plan within 30 days of the signing on the award along with the first annual work plan and follow the same approval process. The Recipient may request that the AOR approve modifications to the approved performance management plan, as necessary.

iii. Quarterly Progress Report The Recipient shall submit one single holistic performance report in a single document to the AOR of the Leader Award on a quarterly basis. Quarterly progress reports will be due 30 days following the end of each quarter corresponding to USAID’s fiscal year from October 1 through September 30.

Program Reports shall be in accordance with 2 CFR 200. 328. The reports must be submitted electronically and shall contain the following information at a minimum: 12 (a) Political Context - A single brief description of the political context and/or enabling environment where program activities are implemented.

This section may include significant political developments and/or relevant events reported in the press or by local partners which affect the overall implementation environment. This section is important for establishing the overall environment for implementation and is useful for considering how changes in the environment may affect program implementation.

(b) Progress Towards Results - A single analytical description of overall program progress towards results that reflect and synthesize achievements of the Recipient examining progress in the context of program objectives and expected results. (c) Summary of Completed Activities - A summary of activities conducted under the Leader Award by categories that will be determined based on the work plan.

(d) Problems and Issues - Problems encountered, reasons why established goals were not met, if appropriate, and how challenges or problems will be overcome during the next reporting period. (e) Indicators - Data on all indicators established in the performance management plan for the Leader activities. Data should be disaggregated by sex and other traditionally marginalized populations where relevant.

(f) Upcoming Activities - Priorities for programming during the next reporting period. (g) Budget Information - A comparison of actual expenditures with budget estimates, including analysis and explanation of cost overruns or high unit costs, and any other pertinent information.

(h) Associate Award and Rapid Response Information - Information on new Associate Awards signed and modifications to existing Associate Awards made during the reporting period. Information on the progress of Rapid Response Activities. iv.

Quarterly Financial Reports USAID requires recipients to use the Standard Form 425 or Standard Form 425a, Federal Financial Report, or such other forms authorized for obtaining financial information as may be approved by OMB. 13 Quarterly Financial Reports shall be due within 30 days following the end of each quarter corresponding to USAID’s fiscal year from October 1 through September 30.

This report shall include a statement of Quarterly Accruals to allow USAID and the AOR to monitor the financial status of the project. Accruals should include the (a) total amount obligated; (b) total amount invoiced for, (c) total amount of expended but not yet invoiced for, and (d) remaining unexpended funds. v.

Country-By-Country Breakdown of Expenditures Recipient shall list each country included in the program and the total amount expended for each country under the award for the reporting period in the "Remarks" block on the "Financial Status Report" SF 269 or SF 269A, or on a separate sheet of paper with the "Request for Advance or Reimbursement" SF 270. The Recipient shall submit two comprehensive reports.

The penultimate report, pertaining only to activities conducted under the Leader Award, shall be submitted no later than 90 calendar days after the expiration of the Leader Award. The final report, pertaining to the Leader Award and all Associate Awards collectively, shall be submitted no later than 90 calendar days after the expiration of the last Associate Award.

Each final performance report shall contain the following information: (a) Executive Summary - An executive summary of the accomplishments and results achieved. (b) Achievement of Results - An in-depth analysis of progress and results that synthesizes achievements of all organizations that contributed towards program objectives.

This section should clearly describe activities, major accomplishments and results achieved, including results for all the activities under the Leader and Associate Awards. The significance of these activities for overall elections and political transitions development worldwide should be highlighted. (c) Sustainability - An account of the sustainability of efforts under the award.

(d) Indicators - Final data, compared to baseline data, for all indicators included in the monitoring and evaluation plan for leader and Associate 14 Award activities. This section should include disaggregated data by sex, traditionally marginalized groups and other relevant groups identified.

(e) Problems and Issues - A summary of problems/obstacles encountered during the implementation, and how those obstacles were addressed and overcome if appropriate. (f) Lessons Learned and Recommendations - Lessons learned, best practices, and other findings from each of the leader and Associate Award programs, along with recommendations for future programming under each of the program objectives.

(g) Budget Information - A comparison of actual expenditures with budget estimates, including analysis and explanation of cost overruns or high unit costs, and any other pertinent information. USAID expects that the final performance reports will substantially update assessments of impact, sustainability, and lessons learned contained in the penultimate performance report. vii.

Final Financial Report The Final Financial Report shall be due within 90 days following the expiration of the award. Financial Reports shall be in accordance with 2 CFR 700. USAID requires recipients to use the Standard Form 425 or Standard Form 425a, Federal Financial Report, or such other forms authorized for obtaining financial information as may be approved by OMB.

USAID’s overarching goal in the DRG sector is to support the establishment and consolidation of inclusive and accountable democracies to advance freedom, dignity and development.

The role of the Center of Excellence on Democracy, Human Rights, and Governance (DRG Center) is to provide USAID and other development practitioners with technical support, intellectual leadership, and implementing mechanisms to strengthen democratic development around the world.

Within the DRG Center, the Democratic Elections and Political Processes (DEPP) technical area supports the Agency’s objective to encourage more credible and competitive political processes and transitions. DEPP implements programs, supports 15 USAID Missions, and conducts research all in support of Agency programs to support sustainable development.

This Democratic Elections and Political Processes (DEPP) LWA will primarily support USAID’s goals and objectives under the “Governing Justly and Democratically” area of the Foreign Assistance Framework, and, more specifically, the “Political Competition and Consensus Building” program element in the framework.

The resulting Leader with Associate Award will also aim to support the sustainable development in partner countries through the development of inclusive and democratic political processes that lead to responsive and effective governance. The challenges facing democracy assistance have evolved over time since its inception in the 1970s.

Democracy promotion emerged as a more influential component of development assistance after the breakup of the Soviet Union. Optimism in the prospects for democratic development and the development of more inclusive societies was seen in many parts of the world, with a wave of democratization spreading across the globe.

USAID democracy assistance focused on the building blocks of democratic processes – civil society, institutions of democratic governance, rule of law, and competitive political processes. Countries emerging from years of autocracy had an incipient civil society, a citizenry that long had its political participation suppressed, and state institutions geared toward centralized and top-down